The role of agency in determining gender as a social structure should also be considered. Though individual agency can enable individuals to demonstrate their gender and define the possibilities open to them, a structure of gender relations may not determine how people behave: a question of painting according to the colour-by-number structure provided, or painting according to personal choice.
We need also to consider a personal sense of gender in the development of it. Chodorow challenges the idea that gender is socially and culturally determined.
Looking across cultures, the social nature of gender is highlighted. Mead , cited in Siann, studied three neighbouring tribes in New Guinea whose gender arrangements were dissimilar to those that were typical of Western societies.
Gender therefore cannot be understood as fixed categories, but rather as a pattern of social arrangements, relative to the society in which it manifests, as Connell , p. In considering gender as a social structure, it would be appropriate to look to the future. There is evidence to suggest decreasing gender segregation of occupations, increasing numbers of women in higher education and at higher levels of their professions Cotter, et al. Risman et al suggest that education, the military, religious and other social institutions are becoming more gender-neutral.
It might now seem impossible. When looking beyond the numbers of that colour-by-number picture, we can see that gender is not as limited and categorically determinable as we were led to believe as children.
It is a fluid concept, constructed and maintained by a structure of social relations. By understanding gender as a social structure, rather than a fixed biologically-determined dichotomy, we can see the complexity and multidimensionality associated with talking about it. Semenya told to take gender test. Butler, J. Gender trouble: feminism and the subversion of identity.
London: Routledge. Chodorow, N. Gender as a Personal and Cultural Construction. Signs, 20 3 , pp. Connell, R. Gender and power: society, the person and sexual politics. Cambridge: Polity. Cotter, D. Gender Inequality at Work. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. De Beauvoir, S. The Second Sex. London: Vintage. Laqueur, T. Believing is seeing: Biology as ideology. Gender and Society, 7 4 , pp.
Lorber, J. Paradoxes of Gender. Risman, B. Gender and Society, 18 4 , pp. I was able only partially to achieve the latter aim and it is clear that if progress is to be made on this front, these variables must be placed at the center, not the periphery, of the inquiry.
Further, we may mistakenly conclude that a gender difference exists when what we have observed is attributable to vari- ables other than gender Unger, When the connection between gender and emotion is made explicit, each is transformed in the course of being viewed from a previously unexplored perspective.
Shields representations of emotion emotion language; beliefs about emotion must be incorporated into psychological models of how people use emotion information. For gender, the new perspective raises questions about how emotion beliefs and behavior play a role in the formation and performance of gendered identity.
How does emotion, whether con- strued as experience, as a label for behavior, or as a medium of interper- sonal interaction, assume such a significant role in who we define ourselves to be as girls and women, boys and men? This question, which turns our attention to the question of identity, will foster the next generation of research on gender and emotion.
Acknowledgments I would like to express my thanks to Cathy Guttentag for her research assistance and comments on earlier drafts, and to Agneta Fischer for her insightful edito- rial suggestions. The year started with first year cadets, 30 of whom were women. This position shifts research even further in the direction of an examination of contextual effects and problematizing foundational constructs.
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Psychologie Canadienne, 35, Oatley, K. Understanding emotions. Toronto, Canada: Blackwell. Parlee, M. Deeply researched and fully illustrated, this book demystifies an intensely personal—yet universal—facet of humanity. Reviews of this book: Gender, Emotion, and the Family focuses on gender differences in the experience and expression of emotion The book also contains discussion questions, classroom exercises, and suggested readings for each case, so educators can easily integrate GLBT content into the classroom.
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